Periodization
The idea of dividing a training program into stages or cycles originated in Europe in the 1910s as a means to improve sports performance in athletes who trained year-round (Pedemonre 1986). Coaches began to structure training programs to incorporate different stages of training, such as general, preparatory and specific (Pedemonte 1986). General training was used to train the cardio-respiratory system; preparatory training (which lasted 6 to 8 weeks) developed strength using sport-specific exercises; and specific training prepared the athlete for the chosen sport event. This final phase was subdivided into two stages: initial training and main training, each lasting about four weeks.
In the 1920s and 1930s, clearly defined cycles of training began to emerge. Experts began to recognize the need to clearly alternate periods of work and rest, to gradually progress from high-volume/low-intensity to low-volume/high-intensity training and to have each subsequent phase of training build on the training done in the previous phase.
During the 1950s and 1960s, prominent New Zealand running coach Arthur
Lydiard refined this concept by redefining the periodization phases to
include base training, hill training and sharpening (i.e., high-intensity
work) (Lydiard & Gilmour 1978). It was not until the latter half of
the 20th century that the idea of periodizing an athlete's training
program became commonly accepted in the United States. (Back)
The positive physiological adaptation to training--eustress--is the result of correctly timed alternation between stress and regeneration (Bompa 1989). If there is too great a stimulus and/or too little regeneration, negative adaptation, or distress, results. Following the introduction of a controlled training overload, there is a period during which the organism adapts to the overload and works to reestablish homeostasis. Essentially, the organism physiologically overcompensates its adaptation so that the same stimulus, if reintroduced to the body, will not cause the same disruption of homeostasis. (This is similar to what occurs when you get a flu shot.) Following the adaptation to the overload, the organism is capable of doing more work; this enhanced capability is referred to as over- or supercompensation (Zatsiorsky 1995; Bompa 1999).
The basic goal of periodization training, therefore, is to introduce a series of training loads and recovery times that provide a stimulus for adaptation and super-compensation (Bompa 1999). If the training stimulus is too small in either intensity or duration, little or no adaptation will take place. Conversely, if the stress is too severe, the adaptation is delayed or even prevented. (Back)
Much of the information regarding periodization is anecdotal or conjectural in nature and not yet supported by scientific research (Fry et al. 1992). Only a handful of studies have examined the effectiveness of a periodized training program, with most focusing on strength or power gains following strength training. Of these studies, the majority have shown a greater increase in strength (as measured by one-repetition maximum) in the periodized training groups than in the nonperiodized training groups (Fleck 1999). Unfortunately, most of the research on periodization has been short-term in nature, making it difficult to draw conclusions about the effects of long-term training protocols. However, many coaches throughout the world have had great success using periodization to train their athletes.
Although the principle of periodization has a sound physiological basis (see above discussion), the concept is difficult to examine scientifically, because many factors--including those outside the program itself--can affect how an individual adapts to training. This point was emphasized by coach Arthur Lydiard: "There is no coach in the world who can say exactly what an athlete should do as far as the number of repetitions, distances and intervals [is] concerned. Not even physiologists can tell an athlete that" (Lydiard & Gilmour 1978). With this in mind, some studies have tried to scientifically compare a periodized training program with a nonperiodized training program, with the results showing that a periodized training program does indeed lead to better results (Stone et al. 1981; Hakkinen et al. 1991; Willoughby 1993). (Back)
The periodization training method divides a year of training into major periods called macrocycles, each about three to four months in duration. These macrocycles are further subdivided into mesocycles, which typically last three to four weeks (but can last up to 6 weeks) and microcycles, which are typically one week long (Fleck & Kraemer 1996). Thus, three to four microcycles comprise one mesocycle, and three to four mesocycles make up one macrocycle. The final week of each mesocycle is used as a restoration microcycle to unload fatigue before undertaking the work of the next mesocycle; the restoration period can involve both reduced training loads and periods of rest (when the client does no training at all).
The smallest unit of periodization training, the microcycle is considered the most important period because its structure and content determine the quality of the training process (Bompa 1999). It is within each microcycle that the training goal is targeted by the specific workout. The graph below demonstrates a typical macrocycle of training consisting of three 3-week mesocycles, with each bar on the graph representing one microcycle (or one week) of training. The "training load" on the y-axis illustrates training volume and/or intensity.
If you use a four-week mesocycle, you can use the third microcycle as a "crash" or "shock" microcycle, in which the body is overloaded to a greater degree than in the two previous microcycles. The fourth microcycle then becomes the restoration cycle, as shown in the graph below. As physical fitness improves, each new mesocycle should involve greater average training loads than the previous mesocycle. During the restoration cycle (i.e., the final week of each mesocycle), you should decrease the volume and intensity in order to reduce the fatigue caused by the previous weeks of stressful training (Wilmore & Costill 1988; Appell et al. 1992; Sahlin 1992; Zatsiorsky 1995). In the graph below, each bar on the graph represents one microcycle (or one week) and the training load on the y-axis refers to training volume and/or intensity. (Back)
There are three types of training loads you can use and combine during the cycles of training. Use stimulating loads, which overload the body via increases in training volume or intensity, to improve fitness. Use maintenance loads to maintain, rather than improve, fitness. Maintenance loads can also be used in conjunction with stimulating loads to help athletes attain a higher level of fitness in one area while maintaining their fitness levels in other areas.
Finally, use detraining loads of lower intensity and volume immediately before increasing training volume or intensity or during the tapering period before an athletic competition. Although an athlete's fitness level may decrease slightly during detraining due to the decrease in the training stimulus (Hakkinen et al. 1989), the fatigue that has accumulated during the previous training will decrease even more. How much fitness is lost during detraining depends on the training that immediately preceded this period and the length of the period (Fleck & Kraemer 1996). The loss will be nominal if hard training preceded detraining and the detraining period is short (one week). Moreover, the decrease in fatigue during detraining can enhance athletic performance and ready the client to handle a greater training load during the next cycle.
Rest can be considered a fourth "training load." Rest is a very important component of a periodization training program because it is the rest period--not the training itself--that results in adaptations to exercise. The greatest adaptation to a stimulus occurs when muscles recover from previous training periods and are best prepared to tolerate the greatest overload. If you do not intersperse sufficient rest between workouts and mesocycles, fatigue will accumulate, precluding any further improvements in fitness. Therefore, you should precede an increase in exercise intensity or volume with a restoration microcycle. Performance of strength-related tasks can also be enhanced after a period of reduced training (Hakkinen et al. 1991). (Back)
Appell, H., et al. 1992. Exercise, muscle damage and fatigue. Sports Medicine, 13(2), 108-15.
Bompa, T. O. 1989. Physiological intensity values employed to plan endurance training. Track Technique, 3435-42.
Bompa, T. O. 1999. Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Fleck, S. J. 1999. Periodized strength training: A critical review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 13(1), 82-9.
Fleck, S. J., & Kraemer, W. J. 1987. Designing Resistance Training Programs. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Fleck, S. J., & Kraemer, W. J. 1996. Periodization Breakthrough. New York: Advanced Research Press.
Fry, R. W., et al. 1992. Periodization of training stress--A review. Canadian Journal of Sport Sciences, 17 (3), 234-40.
Hakkinen, K., et al. 1989. Neuromuscular adaptations and hormone balance in strength athletes, physically active males and females during intensive strength training. In R. J. Gregor et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the XII International Congress of Biomechanics. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Hakkinen, K., et al. 1991. Neuromuscular adaptations during short-term "normal" and reduced training periods in strength athletes. Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 31(1), 35-42.
Kibler, W. B., & Chandler, T. J. 1994. Sport-specific conditioning. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 22(3), 424-32.
Kramer, J. B., et al. 1997. Effects of single vs. multiple sets of weight training: Impact of volume, intensity, and variation. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 11(3), 143-7.
Lydiard, A., & Gilmour, G. 1978. Running the Lydiard Way. Mountain View, CA: World Publications. Cited in T. D. Noakes, 1991, Lore of Running(155, 157, 209). Champaign, IL: Leisure Press.
Pedemonte, J. 1986. Foundations of training periodization. Part I: Historical outline. National Strength and Conditioning Journal, 8(3), 62-5.
Sahlin, K. 1992. Metabolic factors in fatigue. Sports Medicine, 13(2), 99-107.
Stone, M. H. 1990. Muscle conditioning and muscle injuries. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 22(4), 457-62.
Stone, M. H., et al. 1981. A hypothetical model for strength training. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 21, 342-51.
Willoughby, D. S. 1993. The effects of mesocycle-length weight training programs involving periodization and partially equated volumes on upper and lower body strength. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 7(1), 2-8.
Wilmore, J. H. & Costill, D. L. 1988. Training for Sport and Activity: The Physiological Basis of the Conditioning Process. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Zatsiorsky, V. M. 1995. Science and Practice of Strength Training. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. (Back)
Example of the use of periodization in a training regime.